Educational Psychology

Abstract The present study investigated the role of childhood psychological maltreatment and negative affect in social anxiety among students who are victims of bullying, with self-control serving as a mediating variable. This descriptive–correlational study employed a structural equation modeling (SEM) approach and was applied in terms of its purpose. The statistical population comprised all students aged 13 to 17 years enrolled in lower and upper secondary schools in Sabzevar, Iran, during the 2023–2024 academic year. A sample of 220 students identified as bullying victims was selected through purposive sampling with the assistance of school counselors. Data were collected using the Psychological Maltreatment Questionnaire (Kwates & Messman, 2014), the Negative Affect Scale (Watson et al., 1988), the Social Anxiety Scale (La Greca, 1998), the Self-Control Scale (Tangney et al., 2004), and the Olweus Bullying/Victimization Questionnaire (1996). Data analysis was conducted using SPSS version 26 and SmartPLS version 4. Fit indices indicated that the proposed model demonstrated a good fit with the data. The findings revealed that both childhood psychological maltreatment and negative affect had significant direct relationships with social anxiety. Furthermore, these two variables indirectly influenced social anxiety through self-control. Specifically, psychological maltreatment and negative affect were negatively associated with self-control, while self-control was negatively associated with social anxiety. Based on these results, it is recommended that schools implement programs to strengthen self-control and design psychological interventions aimed at reducing the adverse effects of psychological maltreatment and improving the management of negative affect among bullying victims.

Abstract The purpose of this study was to examine the role of mothers’ mental comparisons of their hyperactive child with other children in shaping their emotions and reactions toward their child. This research was conducted using a qualitative approach and grounded theory methodology. The sampling method was purposive, and the research tool was semi-structured interviews. The study field consisted of mothers of children aged 5 to 12 in Tehran diagnosed with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) during the year 2021. Ten participants took part in this study. Data analysis was carried out using Strauss and Corbin’s method, with three-stage coding, which led to the following core category: Data analysis revealed an interactive pattern in which mothers’ negative mental comparisons led to the activation of negative schemas. This process, in turn, by neglecting the child’s need for social recognition and acceptance, intensified the child’s undesirable behavior and the mother’s distress. This distress gave rise to the following negative emotions and reactions among mothers: sadness and regret, nervous tension, blaming the child, anger and aggression, guilt, feelings of incompetence, shame, fatigue, hatred toward the child, and concern about the child’s future. A small number of mothers, through counseling and training, managed to control their comparative thoughts and replaced negative emotions with acceptance of the child’s special condition and the calmness derived from such acceptance. These findings highlight the necessity of raising public awareness about this disorder and providing education to parents and teachers of these children.

Abstract This study aimed to investigate the impact of elementary games on the metacognitive skills of female second-grade elementary students. The research is applied in nature and utilizes a quasi-experimental design with pre-test and post-test and a control group. The statistical population consisted of all fourth, fifth, and sixth-grade female students in District 16 of Tehran during the academic year 1401-1402. A sample of 120 students was selected through multi-stage random sampling, with 60 assigned to the experimental group and 60 to the control group. The Shenoy et al. (2017) Metacognitive Questionnaire was used. The selected elementary games program was conducted over 8 weeks, comprising a total of 16 sessions, each lasting 20 to 30 minutes, for the experimental groups. Both groups were tested before and after the intervention. Data analysis was performed using ANCOVA. The results indicated that elementary games significantly affected metacognitive skills (including self-awareness, goal-setting and planning, self-regulation, problem-solving, and behavior monitoring and evaluation), with significant differences in the post-test means of both groups. The findings demonstrate the positive impact of elementary games on improving students' metacognitive skills, which has particular importance and usefulness for elementary school teachers.

Abstract The present study aimed to investigate the effectiveness of mindfulness-based cognitive therapy on achievement goals (dominant, functional, attitudinal, and avoidance) and academic motivation of female high school students in Shahrekord. The research method was semi-experimental with a pre-test, post-test, and a two-month follow-up period with a control group. The study's statistical population included all female high school students in Shahrekord in the academic year 2022-2023. The study's statistical population included all female students from Shahrekord's second high school during the academic year 2022-2023. Using multi-stage cluster sampling and screening (40), participants were selected and randomly assigned to two experimental (20) and control (20) groups. The data were analyzed using the analysis of covariance test with repeated measures of the mixed design. The results of the data analysis showed that, by controlling the pre-test effect between the two experimental and control groups, there was a significant difference at the level of (P<0.001), and this effect continued until the follow-up stage. Therefore, the mindfulness-based cognitive therapy protocol was effective and sustainable in achieving the goals and academic motivation of the second-high school female students.

Abstract This study aimed to design an educational program based on the theory of generative learning and evaluate its effectiveness on the academic interest of multi-grade students in mathematics. The research utilized a mixed-methods sequential exploratory design. The qualitative phase involved documentary research to examine relevant documents and studies related to the variables of interest, analyzed through content analysis. The quantitative phase employed a semi-experimental design. The target population included all multi-grade students in Hamadan Province, from which a sample of 39 fourth and fifth graders was selected via convenience sampling and randomly assigned to experimental and control groups. Data collection used the Academic Interest Questionnaire developed by Fredericks et al. (2004), showing a Cronbach's alpha reliability coefficient of 0.78. Quantitative data were analyzed using descriptive and inferential statistics with SPSS software. The qualitative analysis identified ten key components across three instructional stages: pre-instruction activities, during instruction, and post-instruction evaluation. Quantitative results indicated that the mean post-test scores of the experimental group significantly exceeded those of the control group. The findings suggest that educational design based on the generative learning model can effectively enhance the academic interest of students in multi-grade mathematics classrooms.

Abstract The present study aimed to redesign and interpret a comprehensive, context-specific model for teaching reading in Iranian primary schools, grounded in an ecological approach. The need for this research stems from PIRLS international assessment results, which reveal significant weaknesses among Iranian students in higher-level reading comprehension. A mixed-method exploratory–descriptive design was employed. In the qualitative phase, data were collected through semi-structured interviews with experienced teachers, curriculum specialists, and reading literacy researchers, and analyzed via thematic analysis. The quantitative phase involved developing a questionnaire based on the qualitative findings, assessing content and construct validity, and measuring reliability using Cronbach’s alpha. Findings from the first research question identified six overarching components influencing reading comprehension: contextual, motivational-reader, cognitive, linguistic, non-educational contextual, and educational. The second question refined these into four interconnected core domains: educational, non-educational, cognitive, and linguistic. Comparative analysis showed conceptual alignment with established models such as RAND, DIME, and Bronfenbrenner’s ecological theory, while offering a more integrated perspective by emphasizing the dynamic interplay of factors. The study concludes that effective reading instruction interventions should be multidimensional and coordinated, simultaneously addressing in-school and out-of-school influences. This model provides a framework for policymaking, improving teacher instruction, and promoting educational equity.

Abstract The present study was conducted with the aim of investigating the impact of gamification-based teaching on student motivation. The research method was quasi-experimental, employing a pre-test-post-test design with a control group. The statistical population of the study consisted of all fifth-grade elementary school students in Estahban county during the 2023-2024 academic year. A sample of 44 students was selected through convenience sampling and were randomly assigned to either an experimental or a control group (22 students in the experimental group and 22 in the control group). The data collection tool was the standardized Harter Academic Motivation Questionnaire. To test the hypotheses, the inferential statistical method of multivariate analysis of covariance (MANCOVA) was used. The training sessions were conducted over eight 45-minute sessions in the classroom. Students in the experimental group were taught the concept of decimal numbers through gamification-based teaching, while students in the control group learned the same concept using traditional teaching methods. The research findings showed that gamification-based teaching has a positive effect on the intrinsic motivation of elementary school students, but it does not have a significant effect on their extrinsic motivation. Based on the obtained results, the use of gamification-based teaching can enhance the intrinsic motivation of students at various.

Abstract Learning disability centers play an important role in identifying and supporting elementary school students with specific learning difficulties. Evaluating the performance of these centers is essential for improving educational services and facilitating students’ learning process. The present study aimed to examine the performance of learning disability centers and their role in facilitating the learning process of elementary school students in Isfahan Province. Although the broader research adopted a mixed-methods design, this article reported only the quantitative phase using a descriptive survey approach. The statistical population consisted of elementary school teachers in Isfahan Province who had referred students with learning difficulties to specialized centers, and 371 teachers were selected through multistage cluster sampling. Data were collected using a 25-item researcher-made questionnaire developed by the authors in 2022. Its content validity was confirmed by experts in educational sciences and its reliability was established through Cronbach’s alpha. Data were analyzed using descriptive and inferential statistical methods, as well as exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis. The findings indicated that the instrument had acceptable validity and high reliability, and its factor structure was confirmed. The results showed that the performance of learning disability centers was generally favorable and that these centers contributed to facilitating the learning process of students with special needs. However, weaknesses were observed in coordination among related sectors and in collaboration with schools and parents. Strengthening coordination and collaboration among centers, schools, and families is therefore necessary to improve the effectiveness of these services.
The results of the quantitative data analysis indicated that the mean overall performance of Learning Disabilities Centers from teachers’ perspectives, measured on a four-point Likert scale (0–3), was below the theoretical midpoint (1.5). In addition, the results of the one-sample *t*-test showed that the overall performance and most components were significantly lower than the average level. The qualitative findings also revealed that these centers face several challenges, including weak communication with schools, limited collaboration with parents, and structural and administrative barriers.
Overall, the findings suggest that although Learning Disabilities Centers have the potential capacity to facilitate students’ learning, improving their performance requires revising service delivery practices, strengthening intersectoral interactions, and addressing existing structural and operational barriers.

Abstract Specific learning disorder (SLD) is one of the most prevalent academic difficulties in children and may adversely affect cognitive functioning and academic performance. The present study aimed to investigate the effectiveness of Computer-Based Cognitive Rehabilitation (ARAM) on visual and auditory working memory in students with SLD. This semi-experimental study employed a pretest–posttest design with a comparison condition. The statistical population consisted of 9–10-year-old male students (Grades 3 and 4) diagnosed with SLD who attended the Derakhshesh Child and Adolescent Counseling Center in Najafabad during the second half of 2024. Inclusion criteria were: confirmed diagnosis of SLD (reading, writing, or mathematics impairment) based on DSM-5 clinical interview and center records; IQ ≥ 90 based on Raven’s Colored Progressive Matrices; absence of comorbid neurodevelopmental disorders; no psychiatric treatment or other educational/rehabilitative interventions during the previous six months; and informed consent from both parents and students. Exclusion criteria included absence from more than two consecutive sessions, withdrawal of consent, or receiving parallel educational services. Thirty eligible students were selected through purposive sampling and randomly assigned to intervention and non-intervention conditions (n = 15 per condition). After attrition, data from 27 participants were analyzed. Participants in the intervention condition received twelve 45-minute individual sessions of ARAM (three sessions per week), while the comparison condition received no intervention. Working memory was assessed using the Picture Span, Digit Span (forward, backward, sequencing), and Letter–Number Sequencing subtests of the WISC-V. Data were analyzed using multivariate and univariate analyses of covariance. Multivariate analysis revealed a significant overall effect of Computer-Based Cognitive Rehabilitation (ARAM) on visual and auditory working memory after controlling for pretest scores (Wilks’ Λ = 0.087, F(2, 22) = 116.09, p < 0.001, η² = 0.913). Univariate analyses further demonstrated significant effects on forward digit span (F = 111.73, η² = 0.842), backward digit span (F = 62.22, η² = 0.748), digit sequencing (F = 74.27, η² = 0.780), letter–number sequencing (F = 122.31, η² = 0.853), and picture span (F = 26.47, η² = 0.524), all p < 0.001. These findings indicate that ARAM produces large effect sizes in enhancing both auditory and visual working memory in students with SLD. Therefore, implementing computer-based cognitive rehabilitation programs such as ARAM in educational and clinical settings is strongly recommended.
The research instruments included relevant subscales from the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children – Fifth Edition (WISC-V): the Picture Span subscale for assessing visual working memory, and the Digit Span and Letter–Number Sequencing subscales for assessing auditory working memory. The experimental group received the ARAM computer-based cognitive rehabilitation intervention individually in twelve 45-minute sessions (three sessions per week), while the control group received no intervention. Data were analyzed using SPSS-27 with multivariate and univariate analyses of covariance.